The indian national congress

IntroductionThe Indian national Congress is besides known as the Congress party and abbreviations INC. Indian national congerss is a major political party in India.INC founded in 1885 by allan octvian Hume, dadabhai naroji, dinshaw bacha, womesh Chandra banerjee, surendranath banerjee, manmohan ghosh and William wedderburn. The Indian national Congress became the leader of india independent motion, with over 15 million member and over 70 million engagement in its battle against British regulation in India after independency in 1947. National Congress became the states dominant political party, lead by the NEHERU-GANDHI household for most of the party, challenged for leading merely in more recent decennaries, the party is presently the main member of the opinion united progressive confederation alliance. It is the lone party to acquire more than 100 million ballots in three general election. The Indian national association was the first professed nationalist organisation founded in British India by surendranath banerjee and anand mohan Bose in 1876. The aims of this association were â€Å" promoting by every legitimate means the political, rational and material promotion of the people † . The association attracted more educated Indians and civic leaders from all parts of the state and became an of import forum for Indians aspirers for independency. It subsequently merged with Indian national Congress. Its beginning from the zamindari sabha ( association ) founded by DWARIKANATH TAGORE and his cousin PRASANNO TAGORE In 1831. In 1857 the association support the E india company in the sepoy munity, naming the root penalty for the Rebels. In 1866 pandit navin Chandra roy was appointed asa secretary of the association a station which he held for 4 old ages before he eventually moved to Lahore in the class of his employment. Ramnath Tagore was the president from 1867 to 1877 after a stormy meeting in 1870 a declaration moved by nationalist adi dharma cabal of babu hemendra nath Tagore was approved to voice the concern of educated Indians to the British governments on issue of favoritism, engagement of Indian in the Indian civil sercice and political authorization and representation of Indian. This consequence in a split, whereby freemason crown stalwart formed a breakway association called the Indian reform association under keshab Chandra sen to â€Å" unlift the common people but merely give them political representation when they ready for it † . 1871 a subdivision was established by the adi Dharma cabal in oudh by dakshinarajan mukherjee for demanding Indian elected representation in legislative assemblies. The reform association cabal on July 26th 1876 established a India sabha with Bengali leaders like surendranath banerjee sastri, anand mohan bose etc. And held its first one-year conference in culcutta, from 1880 boulder clay 1890 a acrimonious conflict for control of the reform association ensued between the prosen and anti-sen cabals.HistoryPatriot on salt MarchThe fairy adopted in 1931 and used by the proviso authorities of free India during the 2nd universe war. From the foundation of national Congress 28 December 1885 till the clip of independency of india 15 grand 1947, the national Congress was the largest and most outstanding india public organisation, which influence of the Indian independency motion.ALLAN OCTAVIAN HUMEAllan Octavian Hume is the of Indian national Congress. Founded upon the suggestion of British civil retainer named allan Octavian Hume. After the first war of Indian independency and the transportation of India from the east india company to the British imperium, it was the end of the raj to back up and warrant its administration of India with the assistance of English-educated Indians, who would be familiar and friendly to British civilization and political thining. On 12 oct 1885, Hume and a group of educated Indians besides published â€Å" an entreaty from the people of India to the voters of great Britain and Ireland † to inquire British electors in 1885 British general election to assist back up campaigners sympathetic to Indian public sentiment, which included resistance to the levying of revenue enhancements on India to finance the British Indian runs in afganistan and support for legislative reform in India. On 28 December 1885, the Indian national Congress was founded at gokuldas tejpal Sanskrit college in Bombay, with 72 delegates in attending. hume false office as the general secretary, and womesh Chandra banerjee of Calcutta was elected president besides hume two extra British members ( both Scottish civil retainers ) were members of the establishing group, William wedderburn and justness ( subsequently, sir ) toilet jardine. The other members were largely hindus from the Bombay and madras presidential terms.FIRST SESSION OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESSThe first session of Indian national Congress was held on 28-31 December 1885 at Bombay. Lokmanya tilak was the first to encompass swaraj as the national end. The first jets of nationalist sentiment that rose amongst congress members were when the desire to be represented in the organic structures of authorities, to hold a say, a ballot in the jurisprudence devising and issues of disposal of India.ANNIE BESANTAnnie besant was by far the mo st conspicuously involved European in the Indian battle when British entered into the British Indian ground forces into universe war I, it provoked the first unequivocal, countrywide political argument of its sort in India. The divided Congress re- united in the polar lucknow session in 1916, with bal gangadhar tilak and gopal Krishna gokhle decorating the phase together one time once more.MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND GANDHIMohandas Gandhi gave rise to a whole new coevals of patriots, and a whole new signifier of revolution. In the twelvemonth after the universe war, the rank of the Congress expanded well, owing to public exhilaration after Gandhi ‘s in champaran and kheda. A whole new ganaration of leaders arose from different portion of India who were commited gandhians-sardar vallabhbhai patel, jawarharlal neheru, rajendra Prasad, chakravarti Rajagopalachari, narhari parikh, mahadev desai- every bit good as hot -blooded patriot aroused by Gandhi ‘s active leadership- chittaran jan hyrax, subhas Chandra Bose, srinivasa lyengar. Gandhi transformed the Congress from an elitist party based in the metropoliss, to an organisation of the people. JAWAHARLAL NEHERU SITTING NEXT TO MAHATMA GANDHI AT THE AICC GENERAL SESSION.Partition OF INDIAWithin the Congress, the divider of India was opposed by khan abdul gaffar, saifuddin kitchlew, Dr. Khan sahib and congresswomans from the states that would necessarily go portion of Pakistan. Maulana azad was opposed to divider in rule, but did non wish to hinder the national leading.LEADERSHIP CHANGESIn 1947, the Congress presidential term passed upon jivatram gresskripalani, a seasoned gandhian and ally of both Nehru and patel. Indian ‘s duumvirate expressed neutrality and full support to the elective victor of the 1947,1948 and 1949 presidential races. However, a jerk of war began between Nehru and his socialist wing, and patel and Congress diehards broke out in 1950 ‘s race. Nehru lobbied intensely to oppose the campaigning purushottam hyrax tondon, whom he perceived as a hindu-muslim dealingss. Nehru openly backed kripalani to oppose tondon, but neglected courtesy to patel upon the inquiry.Members OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

Precautionary Principle

Precautionary Principle The precautionary principle was arguably developed and originally implemented in Germany and Sweden, and it is these nations that remain the leading proponents of it. For example, it was one of these nations (Germany) that put the precautionary principle on the international stage, and today with regard to environmental regulation (in particular chemicals) it is Sweden that is pushing forward precautionary legislation in the European Union. There is a conflict between those who support the principle and those who oppose it. For example, American policy-makers have become increasingly concerned with the use of the concept by the EU, seeing it as a threat to scientific risk analysis as the main tool for regulation used hitherto. Academics in the United States point out that the US had precautionary elements in their regulations during the 1970s; but these elements turned out to be excessively costly and faulty, and so were abandoned following a Supreme Court judgment in 1980 (in an infamous case concerning benzene) which insisted that regulation must depend on scientific proof of risk. There is no one definition of the precautionary principle. One Swedish author, Per Sandin, lists 19 formulations, often individually vague and mutually contradictory. [1] The most commonly used definition is contained in the 1992 Rio Declaration, which stated that in order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. One of the more rigorous analyze of the meanings of the precautionary principle have been put forward in work by Wiener and Rogers. They argue that there are three different formulations of the precautionary principle. These are:[2] †¢ Uncertainty does not justify inaction. In its most basic form, the precautionary principle is a principle that permits regulation in the absence of complete evidence about the particular risk scenario. Lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation-Bergen Declaration]. †¢ Uncertainty justifies action. This version of the precautionary approach is more aggressive. †¢ Uncertainty requires shifting the burden and standard of proof. This version of the precautionary principle is the most aggressive. It holds that uncertain risk requires forbidding the potentially risky activity until the proponent of the activity demonstrates that it poses no (or acceptable) risk. In this part of the report, the precautionary principle is analyzed in the context of the World Trade Organization and with respect to: i) GATT and exceptions in Article XX, ii) the Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), and iii) the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). The precautionary principle is the focus of intense debates in the fields of food safety and GMOs, particularly in the World Trade Organization. 3] Tensions over these issues grew in 1998 after an EC moratorium based on the precautionary principle was applied to GM products from the United States, Canada and Argentina. [4] In 2003, the affected exporting countries requested the establishment of a Dispute Settlement Body by the WTO. [5] World Trade Organization (WTO) The World Trade Organization (WTO) emerged on April 15,1994, predicated on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1947. [6] The reforms of this organization introduced ‘resolutions’ regardin g the environment. In its preamble, it mentions the ‘objective of sustainable development’ and â€Å"seeking both to protect and preserve the environment†. [7] In 1995, the Committee on Trade and the Environment was created to promote sustainable development and to identify a relationship between trade and the environment. [8] This Committee was created at the behest of the WTO at the end of the Uruguay Round. [9] WTO legislation since then has ad- dressed trade issues that substantially relate to the environment. 10] In spite of the ‘greening’ efforts to integrate the environment and trade, the WTO continues to pursue its objectives â€Å"by entering into reciprocal and mutually advantageous arrangement directed to the substantial reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade and to the elimination of discriminatory treatment in international relations†. [11] WTO agreements that can potentially apply to ‘GMO restrictive measures’ contained in: Ar t. XX of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1947,[12] The Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS). 13] A concise application of GATT rules to the GMO controversy will probably not allow stringent regulation of transgenic products such as the one by the European Community and consequently, the WTO will not allow the application of the precautionary principle. Among the measures contained in the GATT agreement that may represent a problem for the application of precautionary measures is the definition of a ‘like product’[14] and the ostensible product regulation the WTO has employed for products. 15] If the WTO decides to take this approach under GATT to GMOs, it will be largely impossible to sustain bans on these products. The precautionary principle as well may not survive scrutiny from the WTO since it would need to show sufficient scientific evidence that health effects derive from the consumption of GM products. Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) The SPS agreement was created in 1993, which by WTO parties to help reduce the incidence of non-tariff trade barriers imposed to protect, ostensibly, human, animal or plant life. 16] The WTO describes the focus of the SPS agreement: â€Å"To maintain the sovereign right it deems appropriate, but to ensure that these sovereign rights are not misused for protectionist purposes and do not result in unnecessary barriers to international trade†. [17] The SPS agreement does not provide states with acceptable sanitary standards; instead, it guides governments in establishing SPS rules. These guidelines are aimed at helping WTO members to (1) harmonize standards and (2) to assess the appropriate level of SPS protection based on an assessment of risks. Regarding (1) harmonization, under Art. , it recommends that states base their sanitary measures on international standards, guidelines or recommendations, whenever they exist. (2) With respect to the level of SPS protection, Art. 5 encourages states to base their sanitary standards of risks on scientific evidence. The precautionary principle or at least parts of this principle can be found in various parts of the SPS agreement. [18] Precaution is specifically incorporated in (1) the levels of protection, mentions that states can determine â€Å"the appropriate level of protection of human, animal or plant life or health†. 19] (2) In Art. 3. 3, which is precautionary in nature, the level of protection that can be implemented by states is addressed in the following manner: â€Å"members may introduce or maintain sanitary or Phytosanitary measures which result in a higher level of protection than would be achieved on measures based on the international standards†[20] and (3) Art. 5. 7, states that states can adopt higher standards provisionally â€Å"in cases where relevant scientific evidence is insufficient†. 21] The first case to put to t he test precautionary measures under the SPS was the Beef Hormones Dispute,[22] which was based on an embargo imposed by the European Community against US beef treated with artificial growth-enhancing hormones. This case seems to indicate how the WTO applies the precautionary principle. In this case, the European Community did not look at international standards for selecting the SPS l protection level, namely, in the Codex. According to Art. 3. 3 of this agreement, the EC had a right to increase the level of protection only when the ‘higher protection’ was based on a risk assessment. According to article 5. 7, the EC could have chosen higher standards temporarily until it acquired scientific evidence to support the SPS measures. Accordingly, when countries regulate GMOs, and impose standards more stringent than those found on the international level, they will be required to demonstrate a rational relationship between the regulations and the respective risk assessment. With respect to the precautionary principle, both the WTO panel and the appellate body refused to consider its evolution into a principle of international law. 23] However, they recognized that it was the focus of debate â€Å"among academics, law practitioners, regulators and judges†. [24] The appellate body, though, found that the precautionary principle was ‘reflected’ in the SPS agreement, but did not override the specific obligations in that agreement. [25] Based on the hormones case, the SPS agreement’s version of the precautionary principle relies on a scientifical ly based risk assessment. This standard is not likely to afford protection in cases where scientific evidence has not yet been developed. Nevertheless, countries can impose restrictions based on â€Å"provisional measures† to protect, at least temporarily, human health. The temporary moratorium is still more attractive than any alternative yet devised. Core elements of the precautionary principle have been included in trade agreements, particularly, a) in the SPS agreement, b) in chapter XX of the GATT. Although exceptions in these agreements allude to precaution, the discussion of this principle has been directly addressed under the SPS agreement; particularly, in the Hormone Case. The Appellate Body, in this case, said that the provisions of the SPS Agreement embraced the precautionary principle. [26] This principle, however, has been interpreted as being subordinated to clear and convincing scientific evidence to deal with uncertainties caused by lack of scientific evidence. The WTO, when deciding the case between the US and the EC over the moratorium on transgenic products,[27] is obliged by its own decisions to consider its rules not in isolation but in accordance with international law. 28] The precautionary measures by the EC have to be interpreted in accordance with multilateral environmental agreements. [29] The precautionary principle rests in the hands of the WTO; the way these institutions will interpret this principle will shape the future of protection in the international arena. If the WTO declares illegal the EC moratorium on transgenic products, countries will be reluctant to apply the precautionary principle even when the application of this pr inciple is required by a multilateral environmental agreement such as the Cartagena Protocol. An attack on the precautionary principle by the WTO can result in international conflicts between the trade and environmental regimes. Regional View of Precautionary Principle At the regional level, the precautionary principle has been embraced in different ways. In the European Community (EC), this principle plays a fundamental role in biodiversity and health protection, particularly in the field of GMOs. In North America, this principle does not play as fundamental a role in the North American Free Trade Agreement, but has been tangentially alluded to when GMO issues have been raised. The precautionary principle is particularly essential in the management of risk, which is considered in the EC within a structured approach to the analysis of risk encompassing, such as risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. To apply the precautionary principle, decision makers need to start with a scientific evaluation as comprehensive as possible for the purpose of identifying the degree of uncertainty. [30] Unlike in the European Community, the precautionary principle does not play a central role in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). 31] The principle is, nevertheless somehow embraced in this agreement through national legislation. It can be said, however, that the mere creation of the Commission of Environmental Cooperation (CEC) is a precautionary measure to prevent parties from indiscriminately exploiting the environment in the name of trade. While the CEC furthers environmental protection by promoting citizen complaints, its effectiveness is yet to be seen, particularly in the promotion and endorsement of environmental principles such as the precautionary principle. Conclusion In the areas of trade and environmental law, the GMO debate has escalated to the WTO. This organization, when considering the European moratoriums, will definitely shape the application of this principle. If the WTO finds European regulation to be inconsistent with trade agreements, countries will be less willing to apply this principle. At the regional level, while this principle has not been embraced in NAFTA, core elements are contained in national legislation. Although the precautionary principle has been considered in NAFTA by the CEC, this environmental organization is not fully independent and lacks authority to truly promote environmental values such as the precautionary principle. It has also argued that the precautionary principle is not contrary to science but to provide answers with regard to new technologies and in this case, GMOs. With regard to the foundations of this principle, it was argued that it was based on common sense (natural law), and that some of these elements are embodied in the statute of the international court of justice. The precautionary principle departs from anthropocentric attitudes and encompasses a holistic approach. It is not a definite solution and it will not change the world overnight,[32] but it can make a difference in the protection of human health and the environment by providing guidance to policy makers when considering threats posed by GMOs. Bibliography R. Burnett & V. Bath, Law of International Business in Australasia, The Federation Press, 2009. J. Mo, International Commercial Law, LexisNexis Butterworths, 4th edition, 2008. ———————– 1] P Sandin, ‘Dimensions of the precautionary principle' Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, Vol. 5(1999), n. 5, pp. 889-907. [2] JB Wiener and MD Rogers, ‘Comparing precaution in the United States and Europe', forthcoming in Journal of Risk Research, pp. 4-5. [3] Shaw, Sabrina y Schwartz, Risa, â€Å"The Cartagena Protocol and the WTO: Reflections on the Precautionary Principleâ⠂¬ , 10 Swiss Review of International and European Law at 537. [4] Bridgers, supra note 2, at 181 y 182. [5] Isaac, Grant E. y Kerr, William A. , Genetically Modified Organisms at the World Trade Organization: A Harvest of Trouble (2003) 37 J. World Trade at 1083. [6] Macmil l an, Fiona, WTO and the Environment, London, Sweet & Maxwel l , 2001, at 7. [7] See preamble of Marrakech Agreement of the World Trade Organization, Annex 1A, Legal Instruments of the Uruguay Round vol. 1, 33 ILM 1154 (1994). [8] Macmillan, supra note 92 at 12. [9] Ibidem, at 12 y 13. [10] Ibidem, at 12-16. Among the cases the WTO has addressed are: the Tuna-Dolphin cases, The Automobiles case, The Reformulated Gasoline and the Sea Turtle Case. [11] WTO preamble, supra note 93. [12] General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), Oct. 30, 1947, 61 Stat. A-11 TIAS 1700 UNTS 194, as modified by Marrakech Agreement of the World Trade Organization, Annex 1A, Legal Instruments of the Uruguay Round vol. 1, 33 ILM 1154 (1994). [13] Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) (15 April 1994), & â€Å"WTO Agreement, Annex 1A, 69†. http://www. wto. org/english/docs_e/legal_e/15-sps. pdf. [14] Art. 2. 6 of the Agreement of Implementation of Art. VI of the GATT 1994 on Antidumping and Countervailing Measures reads as follows: â€Å"Throughout this Agreement the term ‘like product’ (product similarity) shall be interpreted to mean a product which is identical, i. . alike in all respects to the product under consideration, or in the absence of such a product, another product which, although not alike in all respects, has characteristics closely resembling those of the product under consideration†. [15] Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the GATT, 1994. http://www. wto. org/english /docs_e/legal_e/19-adp. pdf. [16] Grosko, Brett, â€Å"Genetic Engineering and Internacional Law: Conflict or Harmony? An analysis of the Biosafety Protocol, GATT, and the WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement† (2001) 20 Va. Envtl. L. J. 295 at 308. [17] WTO, â€Å"Understanding the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures†. http://www. wto. org/wto/goods/spsund. htm. [18] Shaw, supra note 88 at 540. [19] SPS agreement, supra note 99, see preamble (1) 6. [20] Ibidem, Article 3. 3. [21] Ibidem, Article 5. 7. [22] EC Measures Concerning Meat & Meat Products, Panel Reports: Case WI/DS26/R/USA, August 18, 1997 & WT/DS48/R/CAN, August 18, 1997; Appellate Body Report: WT/DS26/AB/R&WT/DS48/AB/R, January 16, 1998 in supra note 115. 23] Macmillan, supra note 92 at 153 y 154. [24] Ibidem, at 153 y 154. [25] â€Å"World Trade Organization, summary on the Precautionary Principle,† http://www. wto. org/english/tratop_e/sps_e/sps_agreement_cbt_e/c8s2pl_e. htm. [26] Shaw, supra note 88 at 540. [27] Dispute Settlement Body, Panel WTO: European Communities Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, WT/DS291/27, WT/DS292/21 and WT293/21, http://www. wto. org/english/ tratop_e/dispu_e/dispu_subjects_index_e. htm#gmos. 28] Appellate Body Report AB-1996-1,WT/DS2/AB/R at supra note 130. [29] Shaw, supra note 88. [30] Commission of the European Communities, â€Å"Communication of the application of the Precautionary Principle†, (2000). http://europa. eu. int/eur-lex/en/com/cnc/2000/com2000_0001en01. pdf. [31] Raustiala, Kal, â€Å"Precaution in the Federal Legislation of the NAFTA parties†, North America Environmental Law Policy Commission of Environmental Cooperation. http://www. cec. org/files/pdf/lawpolicy/naelp10_en. pdf. [32] Vanderzwaag, supra note 22 at 374 y 375.

Analysis of Staged of Transformational Learning and Their Roles

Analysis of Staged of Transformational Learning and Their Roles Transformational learning is a deep form of learning. Whenever there is a change or problem in your life; such as having a child or going back to school, you go through a learning phase with hard trials. The outcome has a big impact on your life and in the end you will have grown as a person. Upon reading I discovered that there are 7 phases of transformational learning: Dilemma, self-assessment, important evaluation of beliefs, realization that others have similar dilemma, exploring a process, creating a plan of action and finally, reintegration. In July 2007 I found out I was pregnant. I was 20 years old and still hadn’t graduated high school. I was shocked, nervous but mostly excited and realized had to take a long hard look at my life and the life I wanted my child to have. From the day I found out about my pregnancy I started planning and thinking of our future. I enrolled in night classes to get my High School Diploma and also started to get our house in order for a baby. I think I even read every pregnancy book ever published. I had to change everything about my life; my eating habits, my education, my home, relationships and my social habits. Some things were hard to change but in my heart I knew it would be best for my child. I got through all the obstacles standing in my way and by the time my son arrived, I had organized my life for the two of us. I graduated high school when my son was 3 months old, and it was a great feeling. Mezirow’s 7 stages of transformational learning defiantly applied to this huge transformation in my life. I believe the 2 most important stages were self-assessment and formulating a plan of action. I had to look at every aspect of my life and decide what needed changing and what didn’t. Once I decided what needed to change I had to come up with a plan on how to change it to make a better life for my child as well as myself. One huge change was obtaining my high school diploma. I had to call around to the local school districts and find one that offered adult night classes to finish up the credits I needed to graduate. Once I found the school I had to go for one semester. I had my son the last few weeks of class, but continued to go; I ended up finishing and graduating. I devised a plan and stuck to it because I knew how important it was for my family. We are defiantly in a good place now, my son is 3 years old and I am glad I stayed focused and driven to create an adeq uate environment for him to grow up in, he is my world.

Individual Freedom Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Individual Freedom - Assignment Example Warrants should always be obtained when doing search and seizures. Keywords: Introduction 1500 words In the history of the people of the United States, before it was known as such, the British were a ruling force in the land. In dealings with the British, much as was found in the homeland of Britain, there have been seizures of private property and belongings of the people without benefit of reason. When the Bill of Rights was created, the Fourth Amendment was also created which guaranteed the right of people to be secure in their homes, and that all possessions in their home and about their person, would also be safe , unless due cause could be shown and sworn to by the appropriate person (Franklin, Jefferson, & Madison, 2013). Therefore, such items which are confiscated during a search, and the search of a premise itself, conducted without benefit of a warrant, are not considered permissible in a court of law and during a trial (Coyle, 2013). 1.Enforcement of the Fourth Amendment h as been upheld in a number of cases since that time, including Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643 (1961) and Massiah v. United States, 377 U.S. 201 (1964), which was guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment, said that any statements of self-incrimination made by the defendant, without benefit of counsel being present, would be considered void (Coyle, 2013). Subsequently, the Supreme Court took a step further in the case of Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 439 (1966), emphasized that a statement must be read to each person, notifying them of the right to remain silent, so as to not incriminate themselves, and that anything said after that, would then be considered a confession and self-incriminating, valid for use in court as evidence (Coyle, 2013). Justice Bradley stated in the case of Weeks v. U.S., 232 U.S. 383 (1914), that in Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616 (1886), the previous ruling made by Lord Camden in Entick v. Carrington, 19 Howell’s State Trials, 102 (1765), a British common law case concerning the liberties of people, declared that the defendants, who committed the trespass on John Entwick, were not guilty of trespassing when the king’s messengers broke into Entwick’s home and proceeded look through everything for four hours. They caused damage to the house and its contents, and also through removing possessions from the home in order to deliver them to Lord Halifax, who had issued that warrant. Yet it was shown by Justice Bradley, within the Weeks case, that on further review, Lord Halifax had no right to issue a warrant and therefore, the complaint by Entwick against Halifax, was sustained, based on English common laws (Findlaw, 2013). 2.Chief Justice John Marshall has stated that the founding fathers, in creating the Constitution, expected the people to observe the fundamental principles of freedom as set forth in the structure. People were to exhibit thoughtfulness and experience in giving meaning to these principles in an ever-changing w orld and yet, the Constitution must continue forward (Stone & Marshall, 2011). In the Fourth and Fifth Amendments of the Constitution, these principles were put into place because of past abuses by higher powers in search and seizures of people without regard to their rights as free humans. When a rumor could instigate a search and seizure, then all people were at risk of their liberty and would have to live in fear. Therefore, it was important that

Woman and Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Woman and Law - Essay Example Dr Bourne terminated her pregnancy and, therefore, faced prosecution. However, she was acquitted because he was able to prove his point that the victim was suicidal and in case the baby had been born the women might have been a physical or mental wreck. Key Cases with Facts: The Bourne case gave precedent to abortion as the physical/mental health of the woman was indeed in danger had she not had an abortion. it is necessary to take medical opinions from experts, along with considering moral perspectives as well, as to whether to save the life of the foetus or the mother in case an abortion is required. Current Law: - Abortion Act of 1967 Definition of Abortion Law Act: - This act, passed in 1967, defines the types of allowed abortions. A woman can get an abortion before 28 weeks of conception; abortion is also allowed in case the life of the mother is in serious mental or physical danger or in case the born baby will be severely handicapped† Evidence proved: - Personal Evidence : - The Psychiatrist The Gynaecologist Prosecution: . We, as members of the Western society, have certain responsibilities towards our women and the way they lead their lives. To ban practices such as abortion is a strike on their freedom and liberty. No matter how inhumane the practice of abortion appears to be, we have no right to stop it by force or get someone in court just because they want to have a kid. Before the Abortion Act of 1967 the British society was quite strictly against this practice and women carrying out abortion were prosecuted under federal law. Morally, abortion is a complicated procedure. There are two perspectives to everything; one is white and the other black. On the white side a woman, being a member of the free living world, has the right to carry out abortion. On the black side it is wrong because a life is being killed and some people might consider it infanticide. But that is just a perspective, and it has to be made clear that abortion, in other part s of the world, is used for purposes which are unbelievable irrational and make no sense whatsoever. (Barnett, 1997) For example, let’s take the example of India. Just in the state of Maharashtra, every year more than 4.5 million women are forced to get an abortion (Saha, Duggal, Mishra, More, & Khaire, 2004) because, with the use of sonogram, families are able to identify the sex of the baby; if the baby is male then all is well but if it is a girl she might be aborted, the reason being that girls are not considered the â€Å"Bread Winner† in the Indian society. Abortion in this and similar cases is wrong. It must also be comprehended that abortion has increased at an alarming rate, since the passing of the Abortion Act of 1967, The number of abortions carried out since the passage of the Abortion Act 1967 is unacceptably high. Medically, abortion is beneficial in certain cases. Number one, in case of rape if a woman gets pregnant and decides not to abort the baby, th e woman is at a risk of suffering post-natal depression which can, with time, endanger the baby’s health. The second case is when a child has been conceived because of an incestuous relationship; in this situation there is a high probability of the child being defective. Third is in the case of Thalassemia or HIV; if both the parents are suffering from one of these conditions there is a probability that the child might also contract it or it can even result in the death of either the child or the mother at the time of delivery. In my personal opinion pregnancy is more about men dominating women, and I can say it with 100% surety that if men were to get pregnant instead of women, abortion would definitely be a blessing. In the English society abortion is on a rise and women, mostly teenagers, are getting abortions at an

The Role of Safeguards in Strengthening Independence Essay - 1

The Role of Safeguards in Strengthening Independence - Essay Example While this is so, manipulation of the auditing bodies is completely inevitable as these bodies are appointed and paid by the client. However, it is possible to optimize independence by neutralizing the threats that put independence at stake. Some threats that affect independence include self interest threats, self review threat, management threats, advocacy threats, familiarity threats and intimidation threats. In this light, designing and deploying effective safeguards will increase the level of auditor independence to and ensure integrity in their work. This can be achieved through the mandatory auditor rotation, peer review, independent auditor appointing, free setting and formulation of effective audit committees. Mandatory Auditor Rotation Mandatory auditor rotation is the act of compelling all financial organizations to adopt and engage a different auditor each financial year to avoid the preference of a single auditor. Often, the management prefers to hire the same auditors every year to ensure that they are able to manipulate them to provide audit results that conform to the will of the management (Chung 2004, p. 8). This inclination of the audit results to the management's opinion undermines independence and reduces the integrity of the end results. In this view, mandatory auditor rotation will ensure that the familiarity and the management threats are suppressed and the audit bodies have a better chance to provide results that reflects the true image of the organization (Chung 2004, p. 8). According to Forbes (2013, Para. 2), the US House of Representatives voted for mandatory auditor rotation as one way of setting the audit bodies free from manipulation. Peer Review In a peer review audit, after the principal au ditor completes the audit process, other qualified professionals evaluate the work to verify its integrity and ensure that the financial statements are in accordance with those of the financial investors. This is a quality assurance process that aims at reducing any errors that may have occurred during the initial accounting process. In addition, this helps to reduce any form of data manipulation that may have been done intentionally under the influence of any independence threat (Allen and Siegel, 2002). Although this process may be quite expensive, it ensures that independence threats are neutralized and more credible results are attained. Independent Auditor appointing and free setting In this process, the role of appointing a professional auditor is withdrawn from the financial investor or client and dedicated to another body. The International Organization of the security commission (2002) states that the role of client in appointing the auditor provides a weakness in the indep endence of the audit results. Often, organizations will choose those auditors that they feel are easy to manipulate or threaten to ensure that they are able to cover up or pursue personal interests by imposing their own opinions on these professionals. To reduce this threat, an independent appointing body should be constituted to ensure that familiarity threats are eliminated by selecting professionals that are least affiliated to the firms. For instance, the government agencies can be chosen to appoint audit bodies for financial investors. Alternatively, shareholder committees should be formulated to take up this role of appointing a credible professional audit body that can provide credible results. In essence, giving this role to an

Human rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Human rights - Essay Example With regard to the concept of `permissible roughness of treatment, treatment or punishment can only be adjudged to be in breach of Article 3 ex post facto, essentially because it is only then that all the relevant circumstances can be considered. To reach firm conclusions as to the nature and effect of treatment or punishment before it occurs clearly departs from the principle of assessment after the event. Whilst endorsing that principle in Soering, the Court indicated that a departure from it may be appropriate in certain cases: â€Å"It is not normally for the Convention institutions to pronounce on the existence or otherwise of potential violations of the Convention. However, where an applicant claims that a decision to extradite him would, if implemented, be contrary to Article 3 by reason of its foreseeable consequences in the requesting country, a departure form the principle is necessary, in view of the serious and irreparable nature of the alleged suffering risked, in order to ensure the effectiveness of the safeguard provided by the Article.†2 Such a departure is justified on a number of grounds, besides the risk of serious and irreparable suffering. They include the principle of effective protection, the belief that the Convention is designed to promote and maintain democratic ideals, the fact that Article 3 admits of no exceptions or derogations3 and, more to the point, that Article 3 represents an absolute standard. In Soering, the United Kingdom Government argued that speculative ill-treatment is prohibited under Article 3 only if it is certain and imminent.4 Such a standard can be achieved only where the treatment is required by law and its occurrence is not simply a matter of speculation. Accordingly, since the death penalty and the death-row phenomenon were not necessarily automatic and inevitable,5 the

Effectiveness of Employee Motivation in Google Coursework

Effectiveness of Employee Motivation in Google - Coursework Example This research will begin with the statement that motivation as explained by Burrus et al, is a multifaceted dynamic of forces, desires, drives, and other mechanisms within an individual that establish and uphold voluntary effort directed toward the accomplishment of a particular task or objective. Drawing reference from this definition, employee motivation can be termed as the psychological forces directed at an employee’s behavior in an organization so as to influence their level of effort and diligence in the duties assigned to them. Employers who take the initiative of motivating their employees are in a better position to acquire better organizational productivity, better employee participation and teamwork, and a better average turnover. Google is an American conglomerate, which specializes in providing internet-based services such as search engine service, cloud computing, manufacture and sale of software, as well as online marketing services. Most of Google’s pro fits come from AdWords. Its hasty growth since incorporation has elicited a series of merchandises, acquisitions, and mergers. As a result, Google is one of the corporations with the largest employee base in the world of around 37,000 in 40 countries. Contemporary conglomerates are relentlessly coming up with new methods and techniques to acquire top talent, keep hold of that top talent, and come up with imaginative ways to keep them motivates for paramount productivity. The essay will explore how Google Inc has structured its management so as to endow its employees with the best environment and how it motivates it's them with intrinsic and extrinsic techniques. The essay will also investigate on how effective the motivation techniques adopted by Google Inc have been in streamlining the employees’ effort in the direction of realizing the corporation’s objectives. Before exploring the motivation techniques adopted by Google Inc, it is important to understand some of the theories of motivation so as to get acquainted with the theory Google Inc favors most. Companies have to come up with intrinsic and extrinsic methods of motivation to acquire and maintain top talent. Studies have revealed established valuable theories that are of the essence in the developing strategies of motivation. In the paper, there are the four major theories that have been established.

The Neopteran Questions for an Exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Neopteran Questions for an Exam - Essay Example For instance, the naiad mayflies may live up to one or two years in freshwater aquifers, but adults stages last for a few days at most. Though juvenile mayflies feed on algae and smaller insects, the adults cannot eat due to reduced, non-functional mouthparts. Male fore legs are modified for grasping the female during mating. Near adulthood, naiads rise to the surface of water and molt to develop external wings so that they can move to shore. Mayflies are the only insects which molt after developing functional wings during the pre-adult stage called sub-imago. Adult mayflies rise on same days forming large flying swarms so that females can lay eggs on water surface before dying. Within the mayflies, different species occupy very different niches. The naiads of Blue Quill mayflies possess large mandibles for grazing detritus and periphyton. Like ephemeroptera, the Odonates also have aquatic naiads but possess a highly modified labium for catching prey. They adults too have chewing mou th parts and hinged jaws are used as tools to capture and bring prey to mouth. They also have very specialized copulatory behavior in which male grabs female from behind her head with claspers at tip of abdomen, the female receives sperm from his second abdominal segment, and releases fertilized eggs into the water. Males defending the best grazing area have a better chance to attract more females and thus produce more offspring. The neopteran (new wings) insects have the ability to fold their wings back against their abdomen at rest. Neoptera are subdivided into exopterygota and endoterygota depending on the development of wings through the juvenile stages, and into further groups depending on the modification of their mouthparts. In exopterygota, the metamorphosis is simple or incomplete, and wings gradually develop externally without going through a true pupal stage via molting. The juveniles also usually have similar feeding habits as the adults. The endopterygota undergo comple te metamorphosis and development of major structural differences between immature and adult stages occurs. The developing wings are not visible in the initial stages (larvae). An inactive stage called pupa is formed after several molts which does not feed and move. During this pupal stage big changes take place internally. After the pupal stage, a highly active winged adult appears. The larvae and the adults often adapt to different habitat and use different types of food resources. The evolutionary stages of endopterygota allow the juvenile and adult stages of insects to specialize in different resources, contributing to the extensive and successful radiation of the group. For instance, a bark beetle undergoes egg, the three larval instars, and the pupal stages before rising as an adult beetle. Question Two The sea otter is the smallest marine mammal having no insulating layer of blubber. The warm skin of sea otter is protected against the cold water by a thick layer of air trapped within very dense and longer fur hairs. The hairs are even denser at back of the body which is mostly in contact with the water. Though air provides far better insulation than blubber, sea otters cannot dive deeper and thus are restricted to shallower, coastal habitats. As Allen rule suggests, the legs, ears, and snout of sea otter are shorter for conserving heat in the colder climate. They form a streamlined

Stress in company Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Stress in company - Essay Example Too often, as noted by Verespej (par. 8-12), executives prefer to ignore stress because acknowledging it might create a negative view of the company. In other cases, CEOs and senior managers simply do not see that a problem exists. If stress is evident, they consider it related to the employee’s personal problems and do not feel responsible for addressing it. A major issue is the stress caused by project deadlines that do not take into consideration unexpected delays and therefore are almost impossible to meet. Employees who are allowed to evaluate a project themselves and set up a plan that takes into consideration possible delays will be able to set their own deadlines, and the project will be accomplished with a minimum of stress. Unfortunately, some managers do not want to give up their autonomy and do not allow the staff to be part of planning a project. Therefore, the staff is presented with a plan in which they have no input and are not able to suggest any changes. The company therefore misses out on any innovative ideas employees might have, and for employees who are imaginative and enthusiastic, their specific talents are suppressed, resulting in stress. Their actions are mechanical rather than creative, and if they are presented with a rigid deadline, they and the project will suffer. At the same time, managers who are expected to fulfill expectations of those above them are put in a precarious and stressful situation. The middleman becomes the scapegoat, and too often takes it out on staff members, leading to increasing frustration and stress at all levels. The ladder of managerial levels in a company tends to start at the bottom and move up, with each level of leadership answerable to the one above it. This discourages open discussion and managers find themselves without the ability to vent their concerns with other managers

But These Things Also Essay Example for Free

But These Things Also Essay ‘But these things also’ brings â€Å"to the centre of attention what has previously overlooked†, as Judy Kendall writes. Thomas explores his fascination with the unimportant in this poem and looks at the connection and merging together of Spring and Winter. Much like his other poetry, here, Thomas struggles to put his finger on precisely what he means. This is shown by his inability to separate and distinguish between the two seasons. The poem begins with the first two lines focussing on Spring, however, by following this with two lines focussing on Winter, Thomas explodes our first expectations of usual ‘spring poetry’ of bright and beautiful images. Instead, he catches the limbo between the two seasons and we are presented with the idea of the grass being ‘long dead’ and ‘greyer now’. This pessimistic tone is not what one usually connotes with springtime, but with the cold and bleak winter. By putting the images of the two seasons so close together in this stanza, Thomas reinforces his presentation of their connection. The last line of the stanza, ‘than all the winter it was’, changes the natural syntax of the words. The stress focuses of ‘it was’, emphasising what has past, which creates a sense of longing, introducing the idea that, like in ‘March’, Thomas is desperate to find ‘the key’ the last two lines of the first stanza finish with the words ‘now and ‘was’, bringing together images of the movement of time and emphasising the gap between the present and the past and importantly, Thomas’s focus on that gap. The second stanza uses inscape to look at things, which are seemingly unimportant. These things show the remains of winter, therefore connecting the seasons further. Once again, Thomas alters the syntax of the words to create a more beautified image.’ The word ‘bleached’ would usually have a much more negative connotation of fading and perhaps even the loss of hope, however By placing the word at the end of the first line and after the word ‘little’ he takes away the harshness of the sound and makes it more delicate and gentle. As well as this, Tomas’s use of enjambment stresses the soft ‘L’ sounds in ‘the shell of the little snail’, which further emphasises the smoothness of the words. Following this, the sexural pause halfway along the  second line, highlights the plosive sounds on the image of the ‘chip of flint’. This draws our attention to the minute details, which Thomas considers and accentuates the signs that spring is not quite here yet. By observing nature in this much detail, we see how valuable Thomas considers it to be, it creates a sense that although these things are small and often overlooked, they are significant. The final image in this stanza is of the ‘purest white’ bird dung. At first it appears odd to be beautifying such a thing as bird dung, but by following it with the words ‘purest white’, Thomas introduces an idea of innocence and positivity, as well as a contrast with the previous image of something ‘greyer now’. This brief glimmer of hope however, is shattered in the next stanza. In stanza three, the image of ‘white’ no longer has positive connotations, but it feels as if Thomas could be referring to the relationship between the colour white and death. This instantly darkens the tone and the notion of mistaking bird dung for violets presents the idea that Thomas is truly desperate for any indication of spring’s arrival. The following violent images of ‘winter’s ruins’ and ‘winter’s debts’ create an oppressive feeling which moves further from the previous idea of hope. Continuing the pattern of Thomas’s other poetry, the word ‘something’ appears ambiguous and vague, creating a sense that Thomas still isn’t quite clear on what it is we are paying ‘winter’s debts’ with. The final stanza of ‘But these things also’ begins to fill us with hope once more. The ‘chattering’ birds create a sense of rising morale and the idea of keeping their ‘spirits up’ sounds optimistic. Despite this, when we eventually think that Thomas is going to make a definitive statement, ‘spring’s here’ he reintroduces the feeling of ambiguity with the words ‘winter’s not gone’. This leaves the poem with a sense of not knowing and uncertainty. This reminds us of Thomas’s tendency to never give absolutes and that he likes balancing a positive idea with a negative. This paradox leaves us with the idea that the winter is preventing the spring from arriving. Throughout the poem, there is a regular rhythm, given by the Iambic  Tetrameter, which is occasionally shortened to show the indecisive and unclear seasons. There is never a climax during this poem due to it all being one long sentence. Robert’s talks about Thomas’s use of enjambment and fluidity, which gives a sense of him thinking and working through his thoughts.

Destruction of our environment

Destruction of our environment Deforestation Issues in Brazil In recent years one of the biggest threats the world as a whole faces is the destruction of our environment. The destruction of the Brazilian rainforest is probably the most important issue that should be taken into consideration because it is the cause of other major ecological problems we are facing such as: global warming, the depletion of our ozone layer, and noticeable climate changes around the world. Brazils deforestation problem has turned into earths deforestation problem. Experts say that not too long ago 14 % of the earth was covered with rainforests. Today only 6% remains and everybody focuses their attention on Brazil because 30% of the remaining rainforests are found in that country (Rain-tree). Deforestation is so dangerous because much of the carbon dioxide that all countries produce is turned into oxygen in the rainforest through the process of photosynthesis. Experts say that 20% of the earths oxygen is produced in the Brazilian rainforest. It is estimated that 90% of all animal and plant species live in the Brazilian rainforest so extinction is another major issue (Rain-tree). The money that deforestation brings to the Brazilian government is a huge motivator since it is a developing country. There are several ways and reasons for which rainforests are destroyed. The major cause of deforestation is logging. The forest is most valuable for its timber so its preservation would cost a lot of money. Commercial loggers destroy huge parts of the forest to reach the trees they want. Trees are brought down and along with them their vines and lianas, which are connected to other trees. When these come down, along come large canopies of green formed above the ground by these vines and lianas. The removal of the trunks cause extra damage since they are carelessly pulled out of the rainforest, destroying and damaging anything in their path. The large machinery compacts the fragile soil with their large tracts, making it very difficult to regenerate. Noise pollution and the destruction of the zone frighten animals living in the area, making them flee to other parts. Commercial loggers make roads to reach other parts of the forest easier. A road connecting point A to point B will disru pt plant and animal life anywhere near it. The roads are then used continuously and animals are forced elsewhere. What most hurts the forest about logging is local people without land that build their homes next to these roads, they are called ‘shifted cultivators (Hect 115). Shifted cultivators usually result when peasants land is ‘stolen by the government because large corporations or companies unjustfully buy the land. These ‘land less people then build their homes inside the rainforest and plant food in order to survive. The Brazilian government blames these people for 60% of the deforestation (Hect 210). In Brazil over 40% of land that is good for cultivating is owned by only 1% of the population (212). Another major cause of the deforestation problem is agriculture. When areas of rainforest are destroyed, ranchers or crop growers move in and clear the entire area. Cattle grazing is very common. Ranchers move in with their livestock and use it to graze until the land is completely barren and stripped of nutrients. After destroying a section, they simply move to a different area and repeat the process. Crops that are grown on rainforest land bring the same consequence; barren, unfertile soil. The problem results when farmers plant crops on the land and begin using pesticides and machinery on the soil. The pesticides alone cause extreme damage to the rainforest. After cultivating their crops farmers leave the useless land and, like the ranchers, move to a different area. These are the major causes for the rainforest destruction but there are many more. Mining in the forest is also a contributor because of large machinery that disrupts life in the area, moves native tribes elsewhere and contaminates the air. For example, Brazil built several hydroelectric dams because they feared an energy shortage. Large sections of the rainforest were cleared to build the dams. This caused erosion problems around the area and animals and tribes living close to the dams had to move. The dams caused several water borne diseases that contaminated the area. According to a World Bank report, Brazil had enough energy to supply to its entire people without having to have had built any of the dams (Causes ). Practices like these, which bring in quick money but leave irreparable damage are drastically reducing the rainforests size. An example of this is how the Atlantic coastline of Brazil has been reduced to 1.7 % of its original state because of cattle grazing (Rain-tree). Experts estimate that in one day 137 plant, insect, and animal species become extinct, equating to 50,000 species each year (Rain-tree). 2.5 acres of rainforest can be the home of over 750 different trees, while a single pond in Brazil can hold more fishes than all of the rivers in Europe (Rain-tree). It is hard to imagine but the Brazilian rainforests has about 3,000 different types of fruits, when only 200 of these are used in the Western World (Hect 110). Rainforests contain half of all animal species living on earth (Rain-tree). Because of human intervention in these rainforests animal species are disappearing about 1000 times faster than they would on their own natural rate. When one species disappears the whole ecosystem is changed and other species that depended upon the first begin to die out until they also become extinct. This chain reaction has wiped out thousands of different species of animals. Most indigenous people living in the rainforest depend on the animals for food and some are believed to be sacred because they are part of their beliefs. When species become getting extinct these peoples lives are affected tremendously. Clear cutting, mining, and dam building are all form of intervention that result in endangered species. The introduction of foreign species into the rainforest further develops the problem since this throws the ecosystem off balance and the different species struggle to fit in, sometimes by killing off others. The poaching of wild animals in the rainforest is another major problem. Furs and exotic birds are very popular among richer countries. Poaching has become more and more common and the extinction rates sore higher each year. Because of economic necessity most poor families living in the rainforest recur to this act by setting traps and capturing animals that are popular on the international market. Animals are sold for very low prices and resold in other countries for much more higher prices. International wildlife trading is a business that makes between 2 3 billion dollars a year so one can see why many local Brazilian people are tempted into it (Rain-tree). Extinction does not only affect animals. Each year thousands of plants in the rainforest become extinct. One fourth of our pharmaceutical medicines in the Western world come from the rainforest. Local people in Brazil use rainforests plants medicinal values greatly. Most indigenous tribes use plants as medicine. Examples of the importance of these plants: Over 70 percent of the plants which are attributed to having anti-cancer properties are found in the rainforest (Hect 139). Unfortunately the Madagascar Periwinkle, a rainforest plant, increased the chances of survival for children with leukemia from 20 percent to 80 percent (Rain-tree). This equates to 8 out of 10 children who are now living thanks to the properties of a single plant found in the rainforest. The Madagascar Periwinkle is now extinct in the wild because of deforestation. The sale of medicines that are plant-based topped 40 billion dollars in 1996 in the United Sates alone (Rain-tree). Forests are destroyed by the second and very few, only 1 percent, of the plants are tested for medicinal properties. Scientists believe that if a cure for AIDS exists it is probably hiding in some rainforest plant (Rain-tree). Most of the plants that are know to have medicinal properties were discovered by indigenous people who have been using them for years in the rainforest. Another major problem is that shamans, or medicine men, who have hundreds of ingredients to plant properties are very elder and if that person dies without passing his knowledge to younger generations everything he knows is lost. As if the extinction of plants and animals were not enough, deforestation has been the cause of many indigenous tribes living in the rainforest to be ‘wiped out. From over 6 million indigenous people inhabiting the rainforest of Brazil in 1500, only 250,000 still exist today (). Mining, ranchers, corporations among others have quickly been killing off tribes in a gruel fight for territory and interest. There are dozens of different tribes living in Brazil. Each with different customs and traditions but they all share certain characteristics. They are all dependent upon the Brazilian rainforest to survive. They kill wild game for food, live in small areas in the forest planting crops for food and live very secluded from ‘civilization and the rest of the world. Indigenous tribes have taught us that earth and man can live in peace. Not only are they threatened by outsiders interested in the land but by their younger generations who move out to the city and thus, lose the val uable information that the elders want to pass on, especially medicinal values of plants found in the rainforest. Indigenous people usually lose their land when they are moved because ranchers, miners, or logging companies decide they would like to purchase the territory. The intruders usually begin ‘slashing and ‘burning the territory they want and expect any tribe nearby to move to a different location. Many times the military is called in and the tribes are forced out of their land. Their human rights are usually ignored by the government and invasion of territory usually end up in bloody conflicts with the ‘intruders. These people depend on the rainforest to survive. The problem, as can be seen, is not only dangerous on a national level but worldwide. Another of these major ecological problems whose main cause is deforestation is global warming. Let us examine how global warning occurs: the sun releases heat which is absorbed into earths atmosphere. Earth then returns some of that heat in the form of radiation waves, part of the heat is absorbed by gases in the earth such as carbon dioxide and methane. This process keeps the earth warm. Trees absorb the carbon dioxide and through the process of photosynthesis convert it to oxygen. As we keep reducing the size of our rainforests, which are responsible for 20% of the oxygen produced in earth and as we keep releasing more and more ‘greenhouse gases, which are carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide into out atmosphere each year, the ecosystem is thrown off balance. These gases make earths climate warmer each year and so produce global warming (Global Warming). Global warming could bring catastrophic results to the planet in general. Sea levels would rise, causing an ecosystem unbalance plus the relocation of people living near the coasts. Countless animals and plants that would become extinct because of climate change. Species would have to migrate elsewhere causing unbalance in their lives. Agriculture would be affected tremendously since climate would change throughout the world, causing serious droughts and floods that would cost billions of dollars a year in lost revenue. Above the earth is a thin layer that helps keep atmospheric gases inside earth and acts as a shield from harmful rays emitted by the sun. The greenhouses gases mentioned above are deteriorating this protective layer, they are burning holes in it which permit the suns rays to enter our atmosphere easily. The sun rays that are entering the atmosphere are so strong that they act as radiation hitting us everyday. Skin cancer is becoming more and more common in recent years because of the ultraviolet rays that enter through the depleted ozone layer. People suffering from respiratory illnesses such as asthma are also on the rise, because of the high levels of pollution we are suffering from large cities. ‘Why keep destroying? you might ask, after reading all the negative effects deforestation might produce. The answer can be given in one word: money. Brazil is a country that is in a stage of development and deforestation is the main source of revenue. Logging is extremely profitable for companies. The wood is used to make furniture, materials, and other wood products. Charcoal comes from the rainforest as well as paper. The United States, Great Britain, Belgium, and Japan are the biggest ‘customers (Solutions). Another sad thing about this is that these companies pay extremely low prices per acre and making billions in profits. The government is selling their property for prices incredibly low prices compared to the amount other countries are making off them. On the other hand, if Brazil was not selling the rainforest then it would have very little, if any, source of revenue. Many economists say that the destruction of the rainforest is inevitable and only ‘natural. Brazil needs more ‘room for its people since the population keeps increasing each year according to them. Economists also argue that if Brazil was n ot selling its rainforest then the country would be sunk in extreme poverty, crime, and they argue that we would still be losing it. According to Bjorn Lomborg, author of The Skeptical Environmentalist, everything we are fed by the media about the problem of deforestation is a lie. Bjorn states that pessimist news sells so therefore the media exaggerates the truth greatly. According to him the rainforests are not disappearing as fast as we think and the problem is not ominous. â€Å"80 percent of the original forest cover is still in place then just about 20 percent of all tropical forests have disappeared† (Lomborg 114). On the issue of global warming Bjorn presents interesting information. According to the author â€Å"plants produce oxygen by means of photosynthesis, but when they die and decompose, precisely the same amount of oxygen is consumed† (115). Trees neither produce or consume oxygen according to his hypothesis since it is an equal distribution of give and take. He criticizes disinformation presented by other sources because according to him they have no grounds or bases for their allegations. In his book, he reminds us of when President Carter warned us that we would have very little, if any, rainforest by the year 2000 in his Global 2000 environmental report (113). Rapid destruction or slow destruction of our planets rainforests the problem is there. There are many things we all can do in order to protect our forests from further deforestation. According to experts the rainforest will yield more profits if it is used for its fruits, nuts, oil and medicinal plants than if it is destroyed now for short term gains. The labeling of timber to be sold would be a giant help against deforestation. Labels indicating â€Å"sound wood† would be sold and customers with a more open and aware conscious would purchase timber that is not endangering any ecosystem. Another huge solution to the problem is paper. If we consumed less paper thousands of acres of rainforest timber would be spared. Through another perspective, Brazils government needs to help fight its overpopulation problem since that is a giant factor with deforestation (Solutions ). The government needs to educate its people and make them aware of the present problem and the magnitude its c onsequences can bring. Without an educated, aware society no plan or agreement will work. The fact that Brazils rainforest is disappearing is undeniable. Whether it is going in slow or fast pace does not matter very much. We, as a society need to help protect the rainforests not only because of their beauty but because of the importance in this planets balance with nature. As stated before, the problem does not affect Brazil only, it is a delicate issue whose consequences affect every living thing on this planet. Unless we take action today tomorrow might be too late.

Gcc economies

Gcc economies Introduction Challenges and Opportunities in GCC Economies. General Attitude towards Foreign Investors Trade integration and Economic Philosophy in GCC economies. Economic Status of GCC economies. Economic Stability. GCCs Political Stability . FDI in the GCC countries The size of the Market . Physical Infrastructure . Resource Endowment and Industrialization . Labor Force . GCC India business relationship . Challenges. Trade Protection and Competitiveness. Lack of diversification The Changing Economic Context of Gulf Politics. Recommendations and conclusions Reference Executive Summary The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is an attractive location for investment and a salient consumer market for imported goods and services, and information technology to one of the youngest population that is considered to have highest powers of spending in the world. The common market of the six GCC economies are open to foreign capital investment and are continually working to grant national treatment to all foreign investment firms and cross country investment and services trade. By 2010, GCCs inter-state trade is expected to enhance by 25 percent, and international trade in this states is anticipated to grow by multiples. Given its trade history and strategic location, the six GCC economies has had long trade and diplomatic relationships with Asia, Europe, and African states, suggesting that it stands to benefit in the long-term from the anticipated growth of these countries. The GCC economies have upheld an open system of trading, free capital movement, convertibility of currency with fixed nominal rates, and large labor inflows- both skilled and unskilled. Additionally, the GCCs advanced financial systems have been an essential channel for advancing their trade integration into the global community. Despite current global economic crises, the GCC has remained a very liquid expanse. The economic growth in several key sectors is forecasted to be moving forwards across the region. Any investor considering venturing in the GCC should be centrally positioned to take advantage of one of the worlds fastest-growing markets. Given the GCCs comparative advantage in oil, gas, petrochemical products, and private capital, and given the Indias technology, know- how, marketing skills and that can be marketed in a very sizeable market indeed. When countries or trading partners specialize on the basis of their comparative advantages, returns are maximized. Therefore Indian firms invested heavily according to the strategy emphasizing their comparative advantages in oil and gas service sector, which presents a great scope for Indian enterprises to undertake joint investments in these fields. Introduction The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) consisting of states six Arab states (Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman United Arab Emirates, and the Kuwait) located in Arabian Gulf. The GCC economies are one of the fastest-growing international markets and have become increasingly important to the economy of the whole world. GCC attracts an ever-increasing number of foreign investments and across wide-ranging sectors. Its rapid development and expansion has made it an active seeker for modern technological capacities, infrastructure development, and business services. Development and improvements have been made to build up a private sector that is fewer dependants on government or natural resources, thus making the area an attractive destination for investment and competitive market for expatriate workers and overseas expansions (Al Bawaba, 2007). The GCC countries investment climate is conducive to foreign investment. GCC countries are continuously adopting policies and taking measures to improve this climate and taking into consideration changes in the international economic parameters and factors. GCC economies recognize the value of attracting and maintaining foreign investment and have resulted to adopting measures aimed at attracting and encouraging foreign investment. GCCs openness to foreign investment and capital has been motivated by an expectation that foreign capital and investment will attract financial resources- visible and invisible, as well as bringing in modern technology (Al-Shamali Denton, 2000). In addition, it may also raise marketing potentials of the local firms by providing access to export markets. Foreign capital and investment can also advance skills and techniques of management and set up state-of-the art facilities of training. The initiative for encouraging invest mostly focuses on the institutional structure and on creating legal and administrative conditions appropriate for carrying out investment activities. Despite current global economic crises, the GCC has remained a very liquid expanse. The economic growth in several key sectors is forecasted to be moving forwards across the region. Any investor considering venturing in the GCC should be centrally positioned to take advantage of one of the worlds fastest-growing markets. However, investments and trade links among the Arab countries leave much to be desired. Capital-rich countries do not feel safe investing in people-endowed or resource-rich countries. However this latter group of Arab countriescan insure food safety, enlarged markets for industrializing GCC countries and investment opportunities (Al Bawaba, 2007). Political risk is often cited as a deterrent, along with bureaucracy. Most often governments are blamed for failure to devise a system that motivates the public as well as the private sector to joint efforts. This paper identifies investment prospect and provide advice on the challenges and opportunities for an Indian enterprise intending to embark on an investment in oil and gas service sector in the GCC region. Challenges and Opportunities In GCC Economies General Attitude towards Foreign Investors Generally speaking, GCC Countries religion, social fabric and norms, and their economic and political cultures do not have in any way prejudices against foreign investors (Al Bawaba, 2007 b). The fact is that there is a history of fruitful co-operation and strong tradition of hospitality. The number of foreign firms and expatriate workers in the region clearly manifest this attitude. Hostilities in whatsoever manner of at any level of contact are absent. Trade integration and Economic Philosophy in GCC economies The GCC economies has had an apparent degree of success in terms of trade integration, capital mobility, labor creation, and in setting regular standards in diverse regulation areas. Some of the GCC members have extended cordial privileges to foreign capitals and investment in areas such as share-market, investment, and government procurement. The longstanding economic philosophy of the region is obviously an open free market and outward oriented (Al Bawaba, 2007). Private property rights are well established and honored. GCC countries, unlike many developing countries, have never experienced what could be called socialist inclinations. Capital and goods are allowed to freely enter and leave GCC countries. Foreign exchange control measures are non- existent and as thus expatriation of profits, remittances and dividends face no restrictions. GCC countries openness is also manifested in their high foreign trade openness ratio which reached more than 70%. For comparison reasons, the same ratio amounted to 16% in U.S.A. and 18% in Japan. This manifests the dependence and incorporation of GCC economies in the international market (Al-Shamali Denton, 2000). Economic Status of GCC economies The combined Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the GCC economies is estimated to reach 1.15trillion dollars according to the Gulf Finance House (GFH) projections. The projection by the Saudi American Bank (Samba) and Al Ahli Bank estimates that by 2018, total investment in the GCC economies could reach up to 670 million dollars. The GCCs world economy share is estimated to enlarge slightly higher than the annual average global growth with an aggregate of 4.5 percent, compared to globally annual average of 3.3 percent (Emerging Markets Monitor, 2008). Within 10 years, the GCC countries are expected to be supplying nearly one-quarter of the world with oil as well as increased quantities of petrochemicals, plastics and metals. Economic Stability The six countries of the GCC possess many common and rather special characteristics. They all depend on oil and gas for government revenues and foreign exchange earnings. These governments revenues and expenditures move the engine of the economy. The non-oil sector, while growing constantly, remains relatively dependent. Oil will remain the major source of energy and the main vehicle to development for years to come (Al-Shamali Denton, 2000). Its role in the international economy as an important strategic commodity needs no elaboration here. Thus, GCC countries status as major producers and exporters will continue to enhance their economic power. GCC production of this strategic commodity accounts for more than 20% of world production. Of the worlds proven oil and natural gas reserves, GCC states hold 45% and 15% respectively, according to conservative estimates (Emerging Markets Monitor, 2008). GCC states have been recording positive GDP growth rates even at times of international recession. Their Consolidated GDP has surpassed the landmark of $ 550 Billion according to World Bank. Expenditure on capital formation (investment) totals more than 25% of GDP. Another indicator of stability, inflation, has remained one digit, and below 5% in most recent years in all GCC countries. Not only that, but inflation was recorded with a negative sign in some years. GCC states have maintained their realistic path of rationalizing expenditure and conservatively estimating revenues. This years budgets which have been based on expected oil prices of $ 40 per barrel, at a time when market indicators and oil experts expectations foresee a price close to $ 60 per barrel. In fact, this behavior has helped GCC countries to record large surpluses in their actual oil revenues during the last few years, and thus assisted them in settling internal debt arrears, and replenishing their foreign exchange reserves. It is evident that GCC countries have started to reap the fruits of the daring measures adopted for the last few years of rationalizing expenditure and embracing the concept of efficiency in the management of both the private and the public sectors. More importantly, they have succeeded in reducing peoples expectations regarding the role of t he government in providing subsidies, employment opportunitiesetc. GCC countries have enjoyed surpluses during the last decade, sometimes substantial, in the current balance of payments (Al Bawaba, 2007). High rates of savings, however, have been unmatched by corresponding internal investments, the potential growth vehicles for these economies. The exhaustibility of their resources implies the urgent need for long-term economic and financial planning in these countries before nonreversible trends take root Economic stability and growth are also combined with general trends which among other results strengthen and enhance foreign investments. GCC governments are pursing policies towards more economic liberalization, privatization and giving a greater role to the private sector. Moreover, export 0riented policies are dominating and manifested in the creation of export financing institutions and establishing specialized exporting units in ministries and chambers of commerce and industry. GCCs Political Stability GCC countries are renowned for their stable political and administrative governance. Power is smoothly handed and regime change is less frequent as compared to most of the developed and developing countries. The stability of the regimes in GCC countries is totally correlated with the stability of general strategies and policies (Al-Shamali Denton, 2000). The strong legitimacy and popular support enjoyed by GCC regimes is rather rare in other developing countries and even in some developed ones. However, on the political and administrative level, there are several fundamental problems that have remained unsolved. Some customs union are yet to be fully implemented, while unstable bilateral agreements between individual GCC states and other trade partners undermine the consistency of the external tariff regime. The monetary union of some GCC economies has been called into question and especially by latest announcement by Oman to opt out and by the reluctance of the governments to agree on representative criteria of convergence. Political tensions have been created between some neighboring GCC States, particularly between Saudi Arabia and Qatar, which could make the political stability level of the GCC economies to wobble. FDI in the GCC countries Having recognized the importance of attracting FDI, GCC economies have adopted new measures aimed at attracting foreign capital and investment. These new measures and development priorities include realizing sustained economic growth by raising investment rates of private sector; enhancing technological skills and local capacities; improving the exports into the world markets, creating more competitive employment opportunities. Openness to foreign capital and investment has been stimulated by an expectation that this openness will bring in financial resources, while attracting modern technology. In addition, foreign capital and investment provides raises marketing capabilities of local firms and access to export markets. It also facilitates upgrading of the management techniques and skills. In the GCC economies, the FDI flow accounts for more than the worlds average in two of the GCC states (Bahrain and Qatar). Conversely, except for the UAE, FDI stock has accounted for a key share weighed against to the value of Gross Domestic Product in these GCC economies, as was evidenced in the case of Bahrain, in which the stock reached more than 74 percent and 70 percent of the level of GDP in 2000 and 2004 respectively. The GCC Service sector Market The size of the market is considered one of the main factors in determining inflows of foreign investments. The larger the size of the market and the greater its growth rates, the larger are volumes of foreign investments. Unfortunately, a popular perception, based on the population estimates only, sees GCC states markets as small. This perception fails to appreciate a number of facts: First, GCC states constitute an economically united bloc which entails among other things a market size of a population approaching 38.7 million inhabitants. Second, the per capita income for GCC states is more that $ 14,317. In other words the populations of the GCC countries enjoy high levels of income, even by advanced industrialize countries standards. Third, the high incomes enjoyed by GCC countries are reflected in high purchasing power and effective demand. GCC states are also strategically situated, by neighboring the African and European continents and being the entrance gate to Asia. It should be mentioned that GCC imports from the rest of the world totaled about $ 119,524.35 million in 2004. Physical Infrastructure Whenever foreign investment in developing countries is discussed, inadequate physical infrastructure is cited as a major discouraging factor. On the contrary, GCC states have succeeded in utilizing their abundant resources in creating a very well developed by any standards physical infrastructure. Major industrial and population centers are connected to each other and to the ports with international standard road network. Recently installed telecommunication systems are in some ways even better than some industrialized countries. New power and water capacity is being installed, and the consumption is being rationalized through meaningful tariffs (Diekmeyer, 2009). Most large urban centers in the region have been provided with industrial parks, complete with necessary utilities and other amenities needed by manufacturing operations (Diekmeyer, 2009). Resource Endowment and Industrialization As petroleum and natural gas form the greatest volume of GCC resources, their industrial development has been directed mainly towards oil and gas based industries such as petroleum refining, chemical fertilizers and petrochemical industries and/or to energy intensive industries such as aluminum and steel (Al-Shamali Denton, 2000). This goes in line with the concept of comp of comparative advantage i.e. if countries specialize in producing commodities on the basis of their comparative advantage, returns from production and trade will be maximized. The availability of cheap energy resources is a blessing for GCC industrialization. For example, the gas used as a feed stock to the petrochemical industry is associated gas and most of it is a by-product of crude oil production. The cost of producing this gas is very low and if it is not used it would have to be flared (Al-Shamali Denton, 2000). Developments in the level and efficiency of the industrial capabilities of the GCC region enhanced the availability of a number of foreign investment attracting factors such as the skills available to prospective investors, efficiency of local suppliers and service firms, and a net-work of supporting institutions, both private and public. Labor Force The substantial developments which took place in all economic sectors have affected GCC labor force in two major ways. First, it required and induced large influxes of foreign professional, skilled and unskilled labor. On the positive side, this has helped in bridging the shortage in local labor, expediting the development process, and exposed the local labor force to a variety of rich experiences and high levels of theoretical and practical training in all fields and aspects of life. That is definitely a plus and an encouraging factor for any future investments, both local and foreign. Second, the tradition and experience in bringing and dealing with well-trained foreign labor reduces the possibility of manpower bottlenecks. That is to say labor as a factor of production is no problem for whoever is interested in establishing production or services units. Expatriate labors as well as nationals do not pay income taxes. Another important factor for foreign and local investors is that in the GCC region there is no record of business disruption because of labor disputes. Gcc India Business Relationship: GCC countries and India have strong trade relations. In 2005, the volume of trade between the two parties was nearly $20 billion GCC countries supply India with a large portion of its oil imports, near $6 billion (Alam, 2008). For GCC countries, their comparative advantages lie in the manufacture of hydrocarbons and the development of energy intensive metal and mineral based products. In addition to this there is a great scope for investment in small and medium size ventures. Furthermore, forecasts show that petrochemical industries for example can branch out into two categories during the next few years (Ramazani Kechichian, 1998). Industries in the GCC countries can specialize in basic petrochemical and energy intensive metals while Indian companies can benefit from such products by using them in manufacturing highly specialized and specialized and sophisticated products with higher value added (Alam, 2008). As a result, this step will certainly enhance the ability of GCC countries not only to import more specialized Indian products, but also will help them in diversifying their industrial base. The attractive investment climate and the geographical market proximity of GCC countries make them suitable candidates for export platform of Indian investments and joint ventures. This scenario is strengthened by the availability of more than 6000 GCC small and medium sized enterprises, covering a wide variety of manufacturing activities (Ramazani Kechichian, 1998). These include food, textiles, wood, paper, chemicals, metallic, non- metallic, engineering and other fields of activities (Alam, 2008). Studies reveal that about 90% of these SMES have plans for expanding their activities. This fact offers the Indian business community wide opportunities via joint ventures, turnkey operations, production sharing, licensing, and other forms of non- equity involvement. The GCC Indian economic relationship would be enhanced by: Arranging visits for Indian businessmen to GCC countries so that they learn more about the regions investment and business opportunities. FGCCC can co-ordinate such visits. Organizing joint exhibitions both in the region and in India. Organizing events to enlighten GCC businessmen with the available Indian co-operation instrument and institutions in fields of trade and investment. We notice a dearth of information on trade, markets and investment opportunities. There is a need for India GCC body to collect and disseminate such information. Challenges Trade Protection and Competitiveness Although many GCC countries boost of open trade policies, they extensively use production subsidies protect a large inefficient, domestic non-oil sectors, often public owned. Price related factors ones are usually among the most imperative factors that affect trade outcomes (Al Bawaba, 2007). The prices of goods and services being traded are considerably influenced by tariffs level and non tariff barriers as well as by real effective rates of exchange, which are themselves influenced by macroeconomic conditions and policies. There is a compelling evidence that trade protection is high for some GCC countries relative to their income levels. Lack of diversification The GCC countries lack diversification in the sustainable economic base and need to devise a system which encourages private investment in industry, agriculture, exports and re-exports, i.e., production and movement of goods. The virtual absence of continuous local water resources and reliance on desalinated water, which is both expensive and insecure, is a constant challenge. Local food and agricultural production falls far short of providing self-reliance and security in light of a burgeoning population and evolving patterns of consumption. Population increase and a dramatic upsurge in education require finding appropriate employment for those with improved skills, as the present rate of growth in the non-oil sector leaves a widening gap between manpower supply and demand. The Changing Economic Context of Gulf Politics The Islamist sectors in the states making up the GCC have grown more politically active since the time that the welfare states were established in the 1970s. The population in these regions has also increased while the price of oil, the main source of revenue, remained fixed. The educated young generation is actively seeking participation in administrative and political levels of governance, while the middle demands work with good wages (Ramazani Kechichian, 1998). On the political and administrative level, there are several fundamental problems that have remained unsolved. Some customs union are yet to be fully implemented, while unstable bilateral agreements between individual GCC states and other trade partners undermine the consistency of the external tariff regime. The monetary union of some GCC economies has been called into question and especially by latest announcement by Oman to opt out and by the reluctance of the governments to agree on representative criteria of convergence. Political tensions have been created between some neighboring GCC States, particularly between Saudi Arabia and Qatar, which could make the political stability level of the GCC economies to wobble. Recommendations and conclusions The GCC countries investment climate is conducive to foreign investment. GCC countries are continuously adopting policies and taking measures to improve this climate and taking into consideration changes in the international economic parameters and factors. GCC economies recognize the value of attracting and maintaining foreign investment and have resulted to adopting measures aimed at attracting and encouraging foreign investment. For Indian enterprises trading in the oil and petroleum service sector, their comparative advantage lies in their specialization in production technology The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is therefore an attractive destination for an entrepreneur wishing to invest in oil and petroleum service sector and the opportunities in this sector far outweighs the challenges. References Alam A., (2008) India and West Asia in the Era of Globalisation, Michigan: New Century Publications, Al-Shamali A., Denton J., (2000) Arab business: the globalization imperative, India: Kogan Page Publishers, Al Bawaba, (2007 a), The Future of the Gulf: The World Economic Forum Launches Scenarios on the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries, p1 Al Bawaba, (2007 b), Saudi Arabia intensifies reform efforts to improve competitiveness around two thirds of $240 billion in planned projects outside oil, gas, and petro p1 Diekmeyer, P. (2009) †Export Wise, Summer,† GCC: Infrastructure Development Opportunities., p26-28, 3p; Emerging Markets Monitor, GCC: Implications Of The Credit Crunch. (2007), Vol. 13 Issue 20, p1-2, Emerging Markets Monitor, (2008) US Crisis: GCC, 14 (26), p17-17,; Ramazani, R. K. Kechichian J. A. (1998) The Gulf Cooperation Council: record and analysis, US: University of Virginia Press,

Evolution Is :: Science Biology Essays

Evolution Is Has the narrative of Mayr and his fellow naturalists—those evolutionists who include natural selection in their explanations and who comprise a strong majority of evolutionist voices today—now entered a sort of evolutionary stasis? Not yet. For example, consider Mayr's central theory of speciation as it applies to a creative species such as humans. There are cultural and creative aspects of our so-called "higher level" species that have the potential to perturb whether and how new species taxa might evolve from homo sapiens: mobility and its effect on isolation, technology applied to environmental and physiological conditions, artificial constraints on reproduction, social cultures, and our creative abilities. Whether our species is better equipped to survive or more likely to accelerate towards extinction may, in part, be determined by these factors and their interactions. Evolution is. Therefore, we are. The human species is an infinitesimally improbable out-come of countless, unrepeatable iterations of a process that itself is a fluke. To paraphrase the late naturalist Stephen J. Gould, erase the tape, have one player move a few feet to the left for good measure, do a retake, do a trillion trillion retakes, and nothing akin to homo sapiens is likely to emerge. Evolution is not intuitive, nor would any sane gambler bet on its odds. There are no "proofs," no conclusions based upon experimentation and testing. What we know about evolution derives from historical narrative—the evolutionary biologists' reconstruction of what might have happened. Their scenario has also evolved through iterations of accumulating, adapting, and eliminating ideas according to new findings, new observations, and new knowledge. In the process, the narrative's woof and warp have tightened. Gaps narrowed to the point that, in "What Evolution Is," biologist Ernst Mayr coul d proclaim, "Evolution is not merely an idea, a theory, or a concept, but is the name of a process in nature, the occurrence of which can be documented by mountains of evidence that nobody has been able to refute...It is now actually misleading to refer to evolution as a theory, considering the massive evidence that has been discovered over the last 140 years documenting its existence. Evolution is no longer a theory, it is simply a fact" [Mayr 275]. Central to this "simple fact" is the concept of speciation, which was developed in the 1930s by Dobzhansky and Mayr. According to them, allopatric speciation is contingent upon the spatial and temporal integrity of a population, a species taxon. Evolution Is :: Science Biology Essays Evolution Is Has the narrative of Mayr and his fellow naturalists—those evolutionists who include natural selection in their explanations and who comprise a strong majority of evolutionist voices today—now entered a sort of evolutionary stasis? Not yet. For example, consider Mayr's central theory of speciation as it applies to a creative species such as humans. There are cultural and creative aspects of our so-called "higher level" species that have the potential to perturb whether and how new species taxa might evolve from homo sapiens: mobility and its effect on isolation, technology applied to environmental and physiological conditions, artificial constraints on reproduction, social cultures, and our creative abilities. Whether our species is better equipped to survive or more likely to accelerate towards extinction may, in part, be determined by these factors and their interactions. Evolution is. Therefore, we are. The human species is an infinitesimally improbable out-come of countless, unrepeatable iterations of a process that itself is a fluke. To paraphrase the late naturalist Stephen J. Gould, erase the tape, have one player move a few feet to the left for good measure, do a retake, do a trillion trillion retakes, and nothing akin to homo sapiens is likely to emerge. Evolution is not intuitive, nor would any sane gambler bet on its odds. There are no "proofs," no conclusions based upon experimentation and testing. What we know about evolution derives from historical narrative—the evolutionary biologists' reconstruction of what might have happened. Their scenario has also evolved through iterations of accumulating, adapting, and eliminating ideas according to new findings, new observations, and new knowledge. In the process, the narrative's woof and warp have tightened. Gaps narrowed to the point that, in "What Evolution Is," biologist Ernst Mayr coul d proclaim, "Evolution is not merely an idea, a theory, or a concept, but is the name of a process in nature, the occurrence of which can be documented by mountains of evidence that nobody has been able to refute...It is now actually misleading to refer to evolution as a theory, considering the massive evidence that has been discovered over the last 140 years documenting its existence. Evolution is no longer a theory, it is simply a fact" [Mayr 275]. Central to this "simple fact" is the concept of speciation, which was developed in the 1930s by Dobzhansky and Mayr. According to them, allopatric speciation is contingent upon the spatial and temporal integrity of a population, a species taxon.